Tools commonly used in the Coal By-Products (Manufacturing) industry for day-to-day tasks and operations.

• Distillation columns
• Fractionation towers
• Reactors
• Pumps
• Valves
• Heat exchangers
• Separators
• Condensers
• Scrubbers
• Filters

Common products and services typical of NAICS Code 324199-07, illustrating the main business activities and contributions to the market.

• Coal tar pitch
• Creosote oil
• Coal gas
• Ammonia liquor
• Coke oven gas
• Coal ash
• Coal-based activated carbon
• Coal-based fertilizers
• Coal-based chemicals
• Coal-based dyes

The specific certifications, permits, licenses, and regulatory compliance requirements within the United States for this industry.

• Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response (HAZWOPER): This certification is required for workers who handle hazardous materials and waste. It is provided by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).
• Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) Certification: This certification is required for workers who work in mines and ensures that they are trained in safety procedures and regulations. It is provided by the Mine Safety and Health Administration.
• Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Certification: This certification is required for workers who handle hazardous waste and ensures that they are trained in proper disposal methods. It is provided by the Environmental Protection Agency.
• National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Certification: This certification is required for workers who handle hazardous materials and ensures that they are trained in proper handling and disposal methods. It is provided by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.
• Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Certification: This certification is required for workers who work in hazardous environments and ensures that they are trained in safety procedures and regulations. It is provided by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration.

A concise historical narrative of NAICS Code 324199-07 covering global milestones and recent developments within the United States.

• The "Coal By-Products (Manufacturing)" industry has a long history worldwide, dating back to the 19th century when coal tar was first used to produce dyes and chemicals. In the early 20th century, the industry expanded to include the production of coke, which is used as a fuel and reducing agent in the steel industry. During World War II, the industry experienced a surge in demand due to the need for coal tar and other by-products in the production of synthetic rubber and other materials. In recent history, the industry has focused on developing new technologies to extract value from coal by-products, such as fly ash, which is used in the production of concrete and other construction materials. In the United States, the "Coal By-Products (Manufacturing)" industry has a more recent history, with significant growth occurring in the 1970s and 1980s. During this time, the industry focused on developing new technologies to extract value from coal by-products, such as coal ash, which is used in the production of cement and other construction materials. In the 1990s, the industry faced increased competition from alternative materials, such as fly ash, which is cheaper and more readily available. Despite these challenges, the industry has continued to innovate and develop new products, such as activated carbon, which is used in water treatment and air purification.

The anticipated future trajectory of the NAICS 324199-07 industry in the USA, offering insights into potential trends, innovations, and challenges expected to shape its landscape.

• Growth Prediction: Stable

  The future outlook for the Coal By-Products (Manufacturing) industry in the USA is positive. The industry is expected to grow due to the increasing demand for coal by-products such as activated carbon, carbon black, and coal tar pitch. The growth of the construction industry and the increasing demand for steel and aluminum are also expected to drive the growth of the industry. However, the industry may face challenges due to the increasing competition from alternative materials and the strict environmental regulations. Overall, the industry is expected to grow steadily in the coming years.

Recent groundbreaking advancements and milestones in the Coal By-Products (Manufacturing) industry, reflecting notable innovations that have reshaped its landscape.

• Development Of New Technologies for the Production Of Activated Carbon from Coal By-Products: The industry is witnessing the development of new technologies for the production of activated carbon from coal by-products. These technologies are more efficient and cost-effective than the traditional methods and are expected to drive the growth of the industry.
• Use Of Coal By-Products In the Construction Industry: Coal by-products such as fly ash and bottom ash are being increasingly used in the construction industry as a substitute for cement. This is not only cost-effective but also reduces the carbon footprint of the construction industry.
• Development Of New Applications for Coal Tar Pitch: Coal tar pitch is being increasingly used in the production of high-performance carbon fibers, which are used in the aerospace and defense industries. The development of new applications for coal tar pitch is expected to drive the growth of the industry.
• Increasing Use Of Activated Carbon In Water Treatment: Activated carbon is being increasingly used in the water treatment industry for the removal of impurities and contaminants. The increasing demand for clean water is expected to drive the growth of the industry.
• Development Of New Applications for Carbon Black: Carbon black is being increasingly used in the production of tires, plastics, and inks. The development of new applications for carbon black is expected to drive the growth of the industry.

This section provides an extensive list of essential materials, equipment and services that are integral to the daily operations and success of the Coal By-Products (Manufacturing) industry. It highlights the primary inputs that Coal By-Products (Manufacturing) professionals rely on to perform their core tasks effectively, offering a valuable resource for understanding the critical components that drive industry activities.

Material

Activated Carbon: A porous material derived from coal, used for filtration and purification processes, essential for removing impurities from coal gas and other products.

Bitumen: A viscous mixture of hydrocarbons derived from coal tar, used in road construction and roofing applications, providing waterproofing and durability.

Chemical Catalysts: Substances that accelerate chemical reactions without being consumed, crucial for improving the efficiency of processes in the manufacturing of coal by-products.

Coal Ash: A fine powdery residue left after the combustion of coal, used in construction materials such as cement and concrete, enhancing durability and reducing environmental impact.

Coal Gas: A gaseous by-product from coal carbonization, utilized as a fuel for heating and lighting, playing a crucial role in energy production.

Coal Tar: A thick, black liquid obtained from the carbonization of coal, used as a primary raw material in the production of various chemical products and roofing materials.

Lime: A chemical compound used in the treatment of coal ash, helping to stabilize and enhance its properties for use in construction materials.

Resins: Synthetic substances derived from coal tar, used in adhesives and coatings, providing essential properties for various industrial applications.

Equipment

Chemical Reactors: Devices that facilitate chemical reactions to convert raw materials into desired products, vital for transforming coal by-products into commercially valuable chemicals.

Conveyors: Mechanical systems used to transport raw materials and finished products within manufacturing facilities, enhancing efficiency in the production process.

Distillation Columns: Specialized equipment used to separate components of coal tar through heating and cooling processes, essential for producing various chemical products.

Filtration Systems: Systems designed to remove solid particles from liquids and gases, essential for ensuring the purity of coal gas and other by-products.

Fractionation Units: Equipment that separates mixtures into their component parts based on differences in boiling points, critical for refining coal by-products into usable materials.

Heat Exchangers: Devices that transfer heat between two or more fluids, essential for optimizing energy efficiency in the manufacturing processes involving coal by-products.

Pumps: Devices used to move liquids and gases in the manufacturing process, essential for transferring coal tar and other by-products throughout the production facility.

Storage Tanks: Large containers used to store raw materials and finished products, ensuring safe and efficient handling of coal tar, coal gas, and coal ash.

Service

Environmental Compliance Consulting: A service that assists manufacturers in adhering to environmental regulations, ensuring that the production processes of coal by-products meet legal standards.

Quality Control Testing: Services that ensure the products meet specified standards and regulations, critical for maintaining product quality and safety in the manufacturing of coal by-products.

Research and Development: Services focused on innovating and improving manufacturing processes and products, crucial for staying competitive in the coal by-products market.

Waste Management Services: Services that manage the disposal and recycling of waste generated during the manufacturing process, essential for minimizing environmental impact and adhering to regulations.

Explore a detailed compilation of the unique products and services offered by the Coal By-Products (Manufacturing) industry. This section provides precise examples of how each item is utilized, showcasing the diverse capabilities and contributions of the Coal By-Products (Manufacturing) to its clients and markets. This section provides an extensive list of essential materials, equipment and services that are integral to the daily operations and success of the Coal By-Products (Manufacturing) industry. It highlights the primary inputs that Coal By-Products (Manufacturing) professionals rely on to perform their core tasks effectively, offering a valuable resource for understanding the critical components that drive industry activities.

Material

Asphalt: This viscous material is produced from the residue of petroleum refining and coal tar distillation. It is widely used in road construction and roofing applications, providing a waterproof and durable surface. The manufacturing process involves blending and heating to achieve the desired consistency and performance characteristics.

Carbon Black: A fine black powder produced from the incomplete combustion of coal tar, carbon black is primarily used as a reinforcing agent in rubber products and as a pigment in coatings and plastics. The manufacturing process involves controlled pyrolysis, yielding a product that enhances the durability and color of various materials.

Coal Ash: This by-product is created from the combustion of coal and is rich in silica and alumina. It is commonly utilized in the production of cement and concrete, enhancing the strength and durability of construction materials while also providing a sustainable alternative to traditional raw materials.

Coal Gas: Generated during the carbonization of coal, coal gas is a mixture of gases that can be used as a fuel source for heating and lighting. Its production involves the careful collection and purification of gases released during the coal processing, making it a valuable energy resource for residential and industrial heating.

Coal Tar: This viscous liquid is produced through the carbonization of coal and is rich in aromatic hydrocarbons. It is primarily used in the manufacturing of roofing materials, pavement sealants, and as a feedstock for various chemical processes, providing essential components for construction and industrial applications.

Creosote: This wood preservative is derived from the distillation of coal tar and is used to protect wood from decay and insect damage. The manufacturing process involves careful distillation and purification, resulting in a product that is essential for extending the lifespan of wooden structures in outdoor environments.

Naphthalene: This aromatic hydrocarbon is obtained from coal tar and is primarily used in the production of mothballs, as well as in the synthesis of various chemicals. Its manufacturing involves distillation and purification processes that yield a product widely used in household and industrial applications.

Phenolic Resins: Derived from coal tar, these synthetic resins are used in a variety of applications including adhesives, coatings, and composite materials. The manufacturing process involves polymerization of phenols and formaldehyde, resulting in a versatile product that offers excellent thermal stability and chemical resistance.

Pitch: Produced from the distillation of coal tar, pitch is a thick, black residue that is used in the manufacture of electrodes for aluminum production and in roofing materials. The production process involves heating coal tar to high temperatures, allowing for the separation of lighter fractions and leaving behind a dense, viscous product.

Tar Distillates: These are fractions obtained from the distillation of coal tar, which include various chemicals used in the production of dyes, pharmaceuticals, and pesticides. The distillation process separates lighter components, allowing for the extraction of valuable products that serve multiple industrial applications.

A thorough examination of the Coal By-Products (Manufacturing) industry’s external dynamics, focusing on the political, economic, social, technological, legal, and environmental factors that shape its operations and strategic direction.

Political Factors

Economic Factors

Social Factors

Technological Factors

Legal Factors

Economical Factors

An in-depth look at the Coal By-Products (Manufacturing) industry's value chain, highlighting its role, key activities, and efficiency strategies, along with its unique value drivers and competitive strengths.

Value Chain Position

Category: Component Manufacturer
Value Stage: Intermediate
Description: This industry operates as a component manufacturer, transforming coal by-products into valuable materials used in various sectors. The manufacturing processes focus on converting coal tar, coal gas, and coal ash into products that serve critical roles in construction, agriculture, and chemical manufacturing.

Upstream Industries

Downstream Industries

Primary Activities

Inbound Logistics: Receiving processes involve the careful handling of coal and its by-products, ensuring proper storage conditions to maintain quality. Inventory management practices include monitoring stock levels of coal and chemicals to prevent production delays. Quality control measures are implemented to test incoming materials for contaminants and ensure compliance with industry standards.

Operations: Core processes include the distillation of coal tar to separate valuable components, the conversion of coal gas into usable energy, and the processing of coal ash for construction applications. Quality management practices involve regular testing of products to meet regulatory standards and customer specifications. Industry-standard procedures include adhering to environmental regulations during manufacturing to minimize emissions and waste.

Outbound Logistics: Distribution methods typically involve bulk transportation of finished products to construction sites and chemical plants. Quality preservation during delivery is achieved through specialized containers that prevent contamination and degradation of materials. Common practices include scheduling deliveries to align with customer production timelines and maintaining communication with logistics providers to ensure timely arrivals.

Marketing & Sales: Marketing approaches often focus on highlighting the environmental benefits of using coal by-products in construction and chemical manufacturing. Customer relationship practices include providing technical support and consultation to help clients understand the best applications for the products. Sales processes typically involve direct engagement with industrial clients to negotiate contracts and ensure satisfaction with product performance.

Support Activities

Infrastructure: Management systems in the industry include quality management systems that ensure compliance with environmental regulations and product standards. Organizational structures often consist of specialized teams focused on research and development, production, and quality assurance. Planning systems are crucial for scheduling production runs and managing supply chain logistics effectively.

Human Resource Management: Workforce requirements include skilled technicians for operating specialized equipment and engineers for process optimization. Training and development approaches focus on safety protocols and technical skills related to chemical processing and environmental management. Industry-specific skills include knowledge of chemical properties and handling procedures for hazardous materials.

Technology Development: Key technologies include advanced distillation and fractionation equipment that enhances the efficiency of converting coal by-products into usable materials. Innovation practices involve ongoing research to develop new applications for coal by-products and improve existing processes. Industry-standard systems often incorporate automation and data analytics to monitor production and optimize resource use.

Procurement: Sourcing strategies involve establishing long-term relationships with coal suppliers to ensure consistent quality and supply. Supplier relationship management is critical for negotiating favorable terms and ensuring timely delivery of essential inputs. Purchasing practices often emphasize sustainability and compliance with environmental regulations.

Value Chain Efficiency

Process Efficiency: Operational effectiveness is measured through yield rates of by-products and the efficiency of conversion processes. Common efficiency measures include tracking energy consumption and waste generation during manufacturing. Industry benchmarks are established based on best practices in chemical processing and environmental management.

Integration Efficiency: Coordination methods involve close collaboration between production, logistics, and sales teams to ensure alignment on production schedules and customer demands. Communication systems often include integrated software platforms that facilitate real-time updates on inventory and production status.

Resource Utilization: Resource management practices focus on minimizing waste and maximizing the use of by-products in manufacturing. Optimization approaches may involve recycling coal ash within the production process to enhance sustainability, adhering to industry standards for environmental responsibility.

Value Chain Summary

Key Value Drivers: Primary sources of value creation include the efficient conversion of coal by-products into high-demand materials and the ability to meet stringent quality standards. Critical success factors involve maintaining strong supplier relationships and adapting to market trends for sustainable construction materials.

Competitive Position: Sources of competitive advantage include expertise in processing coal by-products and established relationships with key industries such as construction and chemicals. Industry positioning is influenced by regulatory compliance and the growing demand for sustainable materials, impacting market dynamics.

Challenges & Opportunities: Current industry challenges include fluctuating coal prices, regulatory pressures regarding emissions, and competition from alternative materials. Future trends may involve increased demand for eco-friendly products, presenting opportunities for innovation and market expansion in sustainable construction and chemical applications.

A focused SWOT analysis that examines the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats facing the Coal By-Products (Manufacturing) industry within the US market. This section provides insights into current conditions, strategic interactions, and future growth potential.

Strengths

Industry Infrastructure and Resources: The industry is supported by a robust infrastructure that includes specialized facilities for processing coal by-products, such as coal tar and coal ash. This strong infrastructure enables efficient operations and enhances the ability to meet diverse market demands, with ongoing investments in modern equipment to improve productivity and reduce environmental impact.

Technological Capabilities: The industry possesses significant technological advantages, particularly in the conversion processes of coal by-products into commercially viable products. Companies often hold patents for innovative methods that enhance product quality and efficiency, reflecting a moderate level of innovation that is crucial for maintaining competitiveness in the market.

Market Position: The industry maintains a moderate market position within the broader petroleum and coal products sector, benefiting from established relationships with key customers in construction and chemical manufacturing. However, it faces competition from alternative materials, necessitating continuous improvement and differentiation to strengthen its market share.

Financial Health: Financial performance in the industry is generally stable, with many companies reporting consistent revenue streams from the sale of coal by-products. However, fluctuations in raw material prices and regulatory costs can impact profitability, indicating a moderate financial health status that requires careful management.

Supply Chain Advantages: The industry benefits from established supply chain networks that facilitate the procurement of raw materials and distribution of finished products. Strong relationships with suppliers and customers enhance operational efficiency, allowing for timely delivery and reducing overall costs, which is critical for maintaining competitiveness.

Workforce Expertise: The labor force in this industry is skilled and knowledgeable, with many workers having specialized training in chemical processing and environmental management. This expertise contributes to high operational standards and product quality, although ongoing training is essential to keep pace with technological advancements.

Weaknesses

Structural Inefficiencies: Some companies face structural inefficiencies due to outdated processing technologies or inadequate facility layouts, leading to increased operational costs. These inefficiencies can hinder competitiveness, particularly when compared to more modernized operations that leverage advanced processing techniques.

Cost Structures: The industry grapples with rising costs associated with raw materials, labor, and compliance with environmental regulations. These cost pressures can squeeze profit margins, necessitating careful management of pricing strategies and operational efficiencies to maintain financial viability.

Technology Gaps: While some companies are technologically advanced, others lag in adopting new processing technologies. This gap can result in lower productivity and higher operational costs, impacting overall competitiveness and the ability to innovate effectively.

Resource Limitations: The industry is vulnerable to fluctuations in the availability of coal and its by-products, particularly due to environmental regulations and market dynamics. These resource limitations can disrupt production schedules and impact product availability, posing challenges for operational continuity.

Regulatory Compliance Issues: Navigating the complex landscape of environmental regulations poses challenges for many companies. Compliance costs can be significant, and failure to meet regulatory standards can lead to penalties and reputational damage, impacting overall industry stability.

Market Access Barriers: Entering new markets can be challenging due to established competition and regulatory hurdles. Companies may face difficulties in gaining distribution agreements or meeting local regulatory requirements, limiting growth opportunities and market expansion.

Opportunities

Market Growth Potential: There is significant potential for market growth driven by increasing demand for sustainable construction materials and chemical feedstocks derived from coal by-products. The trend towards environmentally friendly products presents opportunities for companies to expand their offerings and capture new market segments.

Emerging Technologies: Advancements in processing technologies, such as carbon capture and utilization, offer opportunities for enhancing product quality and reducing environmental impact. These technologies can lead to increased efficiency and sustainability, positioning the industry favorably in a competitive market.

Economic Trends: Favorable economic conditions, including infrastructure development and increased construction activities, support growth in the coal by-products market. As industries seek cost-effective and sustainable materials, demand for coal by-products is expected to rise, creating new opportunities.

Regulatory Changes: Potential regulatory changes aimed at promoting the use of recycled materials and reducing carbon emissions could benefit the industry. Companies that adapt to these changes by offering compliant and innovative products may gain a competitive edge.

Consumer Behavior Shifts: Shifts in consumer preferences towards sustainable and environmentally friendly products create opportunities for growth. Companies that align their product offerings with these trends can attract a broader customer base and enhance brand loyalty.

Threats

Competitive Pressures: Intense competition from both domestic and international players poses a significant threat to market share. Companies must continuously innovate and differentiate their products to maintain a competitive edge in a crowded marketplace.

Economic Uncertainties: Economic fluctuations, including inflation and changes in consumer spending habits, can impact demand for coal by-products. Companies must remain agile to adapt to these uncertainties and mitigate potential impacts on sales.

Regulatory Challenges: The potential for stricter regulations regarding environmental impact and product safety can pose challenges for the industry. Companies must invest in compliance measures to avoid penalties and ensure product safety, which can strain financial resources.

Technological Disruption: Emerging technologies in alternative materials and energy sources could disrupt the market for coal by-products. Companies need to monitor these trends closely and innovate to stay relevant in an evolving landscape.

Environmental Concerns: Increasing scrutiny on environmental sustainability practices poses challenges for the industry. Companies must adopt sustainable practices to meet consumer expectations and regulatory requirements, which can involve significant investment.

SWOT Summary

Strategic Position: The industry currently enjoys a moderate market position, bolstered by stable demand for coal by-products in construction and chemical sectors. However, challenges such as rising costs and competitive pressures necessitate strategic innovation and adaptation to maintain growth. The future trajectory appears promising, with opportunities for expansion into new markets and product lines, provided that companies can navigate the complexities of regulatory compliance and supply chain management.

Key Interactions

Growth Potential: The growth prospects for the industry are robust, driven by increasing demand for sustainable construction materials and chemical feedstocks. Key growth drivers include the rising popularity of environmentally friendly products, advancements in processing technologies, and favorable economic conditions. Market expansion opportunities exist in both domestic and international markets, particularly as industries seek out sustainable alternatives. However, challenges such as regulatory compliance and resource limitations must be addressed to fully realize this potential. The timeline for growth realization is projected over the next five to ten years, contingent on successful adaptation to market trends and consumer preferences.

Risk Assessment: The overall risk level for the industry is moderate, with key risk factors including economic uncertainties, competitive pressures, and supply chain vulnerabilities. Industry players must be vigilant in monitoring external threats, such as changes in consumer behavior and regulatory landscapes. Effective risk management strategies, including diversification of suppliers and investment in technology, can mitigate potential impacts. Long-term risk management approaches should focus on sustainability and adaptability to changing market conditions. The timeline for risk evolution is ongoing, necessitating proactive measures to safeguard against emerging threats.

Strategic Recommendations

An exploration of how geographic and site-specific factors impact the operations of the Coal By-Products (Manufacturing) industry in the US, focusing on location, topography, climate, vegetation, zoning, infrastructure, and cultural context.

Location: Operations are predominantly located in regions with abundant coal resources, such as the Appalachian Basin and the Illinois Basin, where proximity to coal mines facilitates the collection of by-products. These areas benefit from established transportation networks, including rail and road systems, which are crucial for distributing manufactured products to various markets. The availability of skilled labor in these regions further enhances operational efficiency, while local regulations often support industrial activities related to coal by-products.

Topography: Manufacturing facilities require flat, expansive sites to accommodate large processing equipment and storage for raw materials and finished products. The Appalachian region's varied topography can present challenges, such as steep slopes that complicate construction and logistics. However, areas with flatter terrain are advantageous for facility development, allowing for easier access and movement of heavy machinery and materials, which is essential for efficient operations in this industry.

Climate: The climate in coal-producing regions, characterized by cold winters and warm summers, can impact manufacturing processes, particularly in terms of energy consumption for heating and cooling. Seasonal variations may affect the availability of certain by-products, necessitating adaptive strategies to manage production schedules. Facilities must also consider weather-related disruptions, such as snow or heavy rain, which can impact transportation and logistics, requiring robust contingency plans to maintain operational continuity.

Vegetation: The presence of vegetation can influence site selection for manufacturing facilities, as local ecosystems may impose restrictions on land use and require environmental assessments. Compliance with regulations regarding the management of vegetation around processing sites is essential to minimize environmental impact. Additionally, facilities may implement vegetation management practices to prevent contamination and ensure safety, particularly around storage areas for hazardous materials derived from coal by-products.

Zoning and Land Use: Manufacturing operations must adhere to local zoning laws that designate areas for industrial use, often requiring special permits for activities involving coal by-products. Regulations may vary significantly between states, with some regions imposing stricter environmental controls than others. Facilities must navigate these regulations to ensure compliance, particularly concerning emissions and waste management, which can affect operational costs and site selection.

Infrastructure: Robust infrastructure is critical for the operations of this industry, including reliable transportation networks for the movement of raw materials and finished products. Facilities require access to utilities such as water, electricity, and natural gas, which are essential for processing operations. Additionally, specialized infrastructure for handling by-products, such as storage tanks and treatment facilities, is necessary to manage waste and ensure compliance with environmental regulations.

Cultural and Historical: The historical significance of coal mining in certain regions shapes community perceptions of coal by-products manufacturing. While there is often local support for these operations due to their economic contributions, there can also be resistance based on environmental concerns. Engaging with the community through outreach programs and demonstrating commitment to sustainable practices can help mitigate opposition and foster a positive relationship with local stakeholders.

A detailed overview of the Coal By-Products (Manufacturing) industry’s market dynamics, competitive landscape, and operational conditions, highlighting the unique factors influencing its day-to-day activities.

Market Overview

Market Size: Medium

Description: This industry focuses on the manufacturing of various products derived from coal by-products, including coal tar, coal gas, and coal ash. The operations involve converting these by-products into commercially valuable materials through processes such as distillation and chemical reactions.

Market Stage: Mature. The industry is characterized by established manufacturing processes and a stable demand for coal by-products in construction, agriculture, and chemical manufacturing sectors.

Geographic Distribution: Regional. Manufacturing facilities are primarily situated in coal-rich areas of the Appalachian region, where proximity to raw material sources facilitates efficient operations.

Characteristics

Market Structure

Market Concentration: Moderately Concentrated. The industry features a mix of large manufacturers with extensive operations and smaller firms focusing on niche markets, leading to a balanced competitive environment.

Segments

Distribution Channels

Success Factors

Demand Analysis

Demand Drivers

Competitive Landscape

Entry Barriers

Business Models

Operating Environment