Tools commonly used in the Tube-Bending & Fabricating (Manufacturing) industry for day-to-day tasks and operations.

• Tube benders
• Mandrels
• End formers
• Cutters
• Welders
• Grinders
• Deburring tools
• Notchers
• Rollers
• Flaring tools
• Swagers
• Hammers
• Chisels
• Pliers
• Clamps
• Vises
• Measuring tools (calipers, rulers, etc.)
• Protective gear (gloves, goggles, etc.)
• Power tools (drills, saws, etc.)

Common products and services typical of NAICS Code 332996-07, illustrating the main business activities and contributions to the market.

• Exhaust systems
• Roll cages
• Handrails
• Furniture frames
• Heat exchangers
• Hydraulic lines
• Air conditioning components
• Bicycle frames
• Playground equipment
• Agricultural equipment
• Conveyor systems
• Lighting fixtures
• Medical equipment
• Marine components
• Oil and gas pipelines
• Pressure vessels
• Structural components
• Suspension systems
• Water treatment systems

The specific certifications, permits, licenses, and regulatory compliance requirements within the United States for this industry.

• ISO 9001:2015 Quality Management System: This certification ensures that the company has a quality management system in place that meets international standards. It is provided by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
• AWS D17.1:2017 Welding Code: This certification is required for welding in the aerospace industry. It is provided by the American Welding Society (AWS).
• ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code: This certification is required for companies that manufacture pressure vessels. It is provided by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME).
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.147 Lockout/tagout: This certification is required for companies that use machinery and equipment that can cause injury or death if not properly locked out or tagged out during maintenance or repair. It is provided by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).
• NADCAP Heat Treating: This certification is required for companies that perform heat treating on aerospace components. It is provided by the Performance Review Institute (PRI).

A concise historical narrative of NAICS Code 332996-07 covering global milestones and recent developments within the United States.

• The Tube-Bending & Fabricating (Manufacturing) industry has a long history dating back to the early 20th century when the first tube-bending machines were invented. The industry has since then undergone significant advancements, including the development of computer-controlled bending machines, which have improved the precision and speed of the bending process. In recent years, the industry has also seen the adoption of new materials such as aluminum and titanium, which have improved the strength and durability of the tubes. In the United States, the industry has experienced steady growth since the 1990s, driven by the increasing demand for custom-made tubes and pipes in various industries such as aerospace, automotive, and construction. Notable advancements in the US include the development of new bending techniques, such as rotary draw bending, which has improved the accuracy and consistency of the bending process.

The anticipated future trajectory of the NAICS 332996-07 industry in the USA, offering insights into potential trends, innovations, and challenges expected to shape its landscape.

• Growth Prediction: Growing

  The future outlook for the Tube-Bending & Fabricating (Manufacturing) industry in the USA is positive. The industry is expected to grow due to the increasing demand for fabricated metal products in various end-use industries such as automotive, aerospace, and construction. The industry is also expected to benefit from the growing trend of automation and the adoption of advanced technologies such as 3D printing, which can help reduce production time and costs. However, the industry may face challenges such as rising raw material costs and increasing competition from low-cost imports. Overall, the industry is expected to grow steadily in the coming years.

Recent groundbreaking advancements and milestones in the Tube-Bending & Fabricating (Manufacturing) industry, reflecting notable innovations that have reshaped its landscape.

• Robotic Tube Bending: The use of robots for tube bending has increased in recent years, allowing for faster and more precise bending of tubes. This technology has helped reduce production time and costs while improving the quality of the final product.
• 3D Printing: The use of 3D printing in tube bending and fabricating has increased in recent years, allowing for the production of complex shapes and designs that would be difficult or impossible to achieve with traditional manufacturing methods.
• Laser Cutting: The use of laser cutting technology has increased in recent years, allowing for faster and more precise cutting of tubes and other metal components.
• Advanced Materials: The use of advanced materials such as titanium and composites has increased in recent years, allowing for the production of lighter and stronger components.
• Automation: The use of automation in tube bending and fabricating has increased in recent years, allowing for faster and more efficient production while reducing labor costs.

This section provides an extensive list of essential materials, equipment and services that are integral to the daily operations and success of the Tube-Bending & Fabricating (Manufacturing) industry. It highlights the primary inputs that Tube-Bending & Fabricating (Manufacturing) professionals rely on to perform their core tasks effectively, offering a valuable resource for understanding the critical components that drive industry activities.

Material

Alloy Steel Tubing: Combining various elements to enhance strength and toughness, alloy steel tubing is used in demanding applications requiring high performance.

Aluminum Tubing: Lightweight and corrosion-resistant, aluminum tubing is widely used in various applications, providing strength and flexibility for custom bending and fabrication.

Carbon Steel Tubing: Carbon steel tubing is valued for its strength and affordability, making it a common choice for structural applications in manufacturing.

Copper Tubing: Copper tubing is utilized for its excellent thermal conductivity and corrosion resistance, often used in plumbing and HVAC applications.

Galvanized Steel Tubing: Steel tubing coated with zinc to prevent rust, making it suitable for outdoor applications where corrosion resistance is essential.

Plastic Tubing: Used in various applications for its lightweight and flexible properties, plastic tubing is often employed in non-structural applications.

Stainless Steel Tubing: Known for its durability and resistance to rust and corrosion, stainless steel tubing is essential for applications requiring high strength and longevity.

Titanium Tubing: Known for its high strength-to-weight ratio and corrosion resistance, titanium tubing is often used in aerospace and medical applications.

Equipment

Bending Dies: Custom-shaped tools used in tube bending machines to create specific angles and shapes, critical for achieving design specifications.

CNC Tube Cutting Machine: This machine automates the cutting of tubes to specified lengths, enhancing efficiency and accuracy in the production process.

Deburring Tools: Used to remove sharp edges and burrs from cut metal tubes, ensuring safety and improving the quality of the finished product.

Hydraulic Press: A machine that applies pressure to shape or cut metal tubes, essential for achieving specific forms and dimensions in fabrication.

Laser Cutting Machine: Utilized for precise cutting of metal tubes, this machine enhances accuracy and reduces waste in the manufacturing process.

Tube Bender: A specialized machine used to bend metal tubes into desired shapes and angles, crucial for achieving precise dimensions in custom fabrication.

Tube Notcher: A tool that creates notches in tubes to allow for better fitting and welding, ensuring a secure and precise assembly.

Welding Equipment: Used for joining metal components together, welding equipment is vital for creating strong, permanent connections in fabricated products.

Service

Custom Fabrication Services: Services that provide tailored solutions for unique customer requirements, ensuring that specific needs are met in tube bending and fabrication.

Metal Finishing Services: Services that enhance the surface quality of metal products, including polishing and coating, which improve aesthetics and corrosion resistance.

Prototype Development: A service that assists in creating initial models of custom designs, allowing for testing and adjustments before full-scale production.

Quality Control Inspection: A service that ensures products meet specified standards and tolerances, vital for maintaining quality and reliability in manufacturing.

Explore a detailed compilation of the unique products and services offered by the Tube-Bending & Fabricating (Manufacturing) industry. This section provides precise examples of how each item is utilized, showcasing the diverse capabilities and contributions of the Tube-Bending & Fabricating (Manufacturing) to its clients and markets. This section provides an extensive list of essential materials, equipment and services that are integral to the daily operations and success of the Tube-Bending & Fabricating (Manufacturing) industry. It highlights the primary inputs that Tube-Bending & Fabricating (Manufacturing) professionals rely on to perform their core tasks effectively, offering a valuable resource for understanding the critical components that drive industry activities.

Equipment

Automotive Chassis Components: These components are manufactured to exact specifications for use in vehicle chassis, ensuring strength and safety in automotive design and construction.

Bendable Metal Rods: Manufactured to be easily bent into various shapes, these rods are used in a range of applications from furniture design to automotive components, allowing for creative and functional designs.

Custom Bent Tubes: These precision-engineered tubes are manufactured using advanced bending techniques to meet specific angles and radii as required by clients. They are widely used in automotive exhaust systems, where precise bends are crucial for optimal performance and fit.

Custom Exhaust Systems: These systems are designed and fabricated to meet specific vehicle requirements, enhancing performance and sound. They are essential in automotive applications, providing tailored solutions for exhaust management.

Custom Fabricated Brackets: These brackets are designed and manufactured to support various structures and components, often used in machinery and construction. Their custom nature allows for precise fitting in unique applications.

Custom Tubing for Sporting Goods: This tubing is tailored for use in sporting equipment, such as bicycles and gym apparatus, providing strength and flexibility to enhance performance and user experience.

Fabricated Pipe Assemblies: These assemblies consist of multiple bent and joined pipes that are tailored to specific applications. They are commonly utilized in industrial machinery and construction projects, providing essential pathways for fluids and gases.

Heat Exchanger Tubes: Manufactured for use in heat exchangers, these tubes facilitate efficient thermal transfer in various industrial processes, playing a vital role in energy management and efficiency.

Industrial Railing Systems: These systems are fabricated to provide safety and support in industrial environments, often used in warehouses and factories to prevent falls and ensure worker safety.

Metal Tubing for Furniture Manufacturing: Produced for use in furniture, this tubing allows for the creation of sturdy and stylish pieces, such as tables and chairs, combining aesthetic appeal with structural integrity.

Metal Tubing for HVAC Systems: Specialized metal tubing is produced for heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems, ensuring efficient airflow and temperature control. This tubing is critical in both residential and commercial buildings for effective climate management.

Metal Tubing for Medical Devices: This tubing is produced with high precision for use in medical devices, ensuring safety and reliability in applications such as surgical instruments and diagnostic equipment.

Pipe Supports and Hangers: These components are fabricated to support and secure pipes in various installations, ensuring stability and proper alignment in plumbing and industrial systems.

Roll-formed Tubes: These tubes are created through a roll-forming process that shapes metal into specific profiles. They are often used in structural applications, such as in the construction of frames and supports for various buildings and vehicles.

Specialty Tubes for Aerospace Applications: These tubes are engineered to meet stringent aerospace standards, providing lightweight and durable solutions for aircraft systems, including fuel lines and hydraulic systems.

A thorough examination of the Tube-Bending & Fabricating (Manufacturing) industry’s external dynamics, focusing on the political, economic, social, technological, legal, and environmental factors that shape its operations and strategic direction.

Political Factors

Economic Factors

Social Factors

Technological Factors

Legal Factors

Economical Factors

An in-depth look at the Tube-Bending & Fabricating (Manufacturing) industry's value chain, highlighting its role, key activities, and efficiency strategies, along with its unique value drivers and competitive strengths.

Value Chain Position

Category: Component Manufacturer
Value Stage: Intermediate
Description: This industry operates as a component manufacturer, focusing on the production of custom metal tubes and pipes that are bent and fabricated to meet specific requirements for various applications. The industry engages in intricate manufacturing processes that require precision and attention to detail to ensure high-quality outputs.

Upstream Industries

Downstream Industries

Primary Activities

Inbound Logistics: Receiving processes involve careful inspection and handling of raw materials, ensuring they meet quality standards before entering production. Storage practices include organized inventory systems that facilitate easy access to materials while maintaining optimal conditions to prevent damage. Quality control measures are implemented to verify the integrity of incoming materials, addressing challenges such as material defects through rigorous testing protocols.

Operations: Core processes encompass cutting, bending, and welding metal tubes to create custom shapes and sizes. Quality management practices involve continuous monitoring of production processes to ensure adherence to specifications, utilizing industry-standard procedures such as ISO certifications. Key operational considerations include maintaining equipment efficiency and minimizing waste during fabrication to enhance productivity.

Outbound Logistics: Distribution methods typically involve coordinating shipments of finished products to customers using specialized transport vehicles that ensure safe delivery. Quality preservation during delivery is achieved through careful packaging and handling practices, which are crucial for maintaining the integrity of the fabricated products during transit.

Marketing & Sales: Marketing approaches often include participation in industry trade shows and direct outreach to potential clients in sectors such as automotive and aerospace. Customer relationship practices focus on building trust through consistent quality and timely delivery, while value communication methods emphasize the precision and reliability of products. Sales processes typically involve consultations to understand client needs and provide tailored solutions.

Support Activities

Infrastructure: Management systems in the industry include production planning software that helps optimize manufacturing schedules and resource allocation. Organizational structures often consist of teams focused on specific processes, such as design, fabrication, and quality assurance, facilitating efficient workflow. Planning and control systems are essential for coordinating production activities and ensuring timely delivery of products to clients.

Human Resource Management: Workforce requirements include skilled technicians and engineers proficient in metalworking and fabrication techniques. Training and development approaches may involve on-the-job training and workshops to enhance employees' skills in advanced manufacturing technologies. Industry-specific skills include proficiency in operating CNC machines and understanding material properties for effective fabrication.

Technology Development: Key technologies utilized include CNC bending machines and laser cutting systems that enhance precision and efficiency in production. Innovation practices focus on adopting new fabrication techniques and materials that improve product performance and reduce costs. Industry-standard systems often involve automation and data analytics to monitor production metrics and optimize processes.

Procurement: Sourcing strategies involve establishing long-term relationships with reliable suppliers for raw materials and machinery. Supplier relationship management is crucial for ensuring consistent quality and timely delivery of inputs, while purchasing practices often emphasize cost-effectiveness and sustainability.

Value Chain Efficiency

Process Efficiency: Operational effectiveness is measured through metrics such as production cycle time and defect rates. Common efficiency measures include tracking machine utilization rates and labor productivity to identify areas for improvement. Industry benchmarks are established based on best practices and performance standards within the manufacturing sector.

Integration Efficiency: Coordination methods involve regular communication between production, procurement, and sales teams to align on production schedules and customer demands. Communication systems often include integrated software platforms that facilitate real-time updates on inventory and order status, enhancing overall operational efficiency.

Resource Utilization: Resource management practices focus on optimizing material usage and minimizing scrap during fabrication processes. Optimization approaches may involve implementing lean manufacturing principles to streamline operations and reduce waste, adhering to industry standards for sustainable practices.

Value Chain Summary

Key Value Drivers: Primary sources of value creation include high-quality raw materials, advanced manufacturing technologies, and strong relationships with downstream customers. Critical success factors involve maintaining precision in fabrication and adapting to evolving customer requirements for custom solutions.

Competitive Position: Sources of competitive advantage include the ability to deliver high-quality, custom products quickly and efficiently. Industry positioning is influenced by technological capabilities and the ability to meet stringent quality standards, impacting market dynamics and customer loyalty.

Challenges & Opportunities: Current industry challenges include fluctuations in raw material prices and increasing competition from overseas manufacturers. Future trends may involve growing demand for lightweight materials and sustainable manufacturing practices, presenting opportunities for innovation and market expansion.

A focused SWOT analysis that examines the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats facing the Tube-Bending & Fabricating (Manufacturing) industry within the US market. This section provides insights into current conditions, strategic interactions, and future growth potential.

Strengths

Industry Infrastructure and Resources: The industry benefits from a robust infrastructure characterized by specialized manufacturing facilities equipped with advanced machinery for tube bending and fabrication. This strong infrastructure supports efficient production processes, enabling companies to meet diverse customer demands while maintaining high-quality standards.

Technological Capabilities: Technological advancements in tube-bending techniques and fabrication processes provide significant competitive advantages. The industry is marked by a moderate level of innovation, with companies investing in proprietary technologies that enhance precision and efficiency, ensuring they remain competitive in a rapidly evolving market.

Market Position: The industry holds a strong position within the broader manufacturing sector, with a notable share in automotive and aerospace applications. Established relationships with key clients and a reputation for quality contribute to its competitive strength, although it faces challenges from emerging competitors.

Financial Health: Financial performance across the industry is generally strong, with many companies reporting stable revenue growth and healthy profit margins. This financial health is supported by consistent demand for custom metal products, although fluctuations in raw material prices can impact profitability.

Supply Chain Advantages: The industry enjoys robust supply chain networks that facilitate efficient procurement of raw materials and timely distribution of finished products. Strong relationships with suppliers and logistics partners enhance operational efficiency, allowing companies to respond quickly to market demands.

Workforce Expertise: The labor force in this industry is skilled and knowledgeable, with many workers possessing specialized training in metalworking and fabrication techniques. This expertise contributes to high product quality and operational efficiency, although there is a continuous need for training to keep pace with technological advancements.

Weaknesses

Structural Inefficiencies: Some companies face structural inefficiencies due to outdated equipment or suboptimal facility layouts, leading to increased operational costs. These inefficiencies can hinder competitiveness, particularly when compared to more modernized operations that leverage advanced manufacturing technologies.

Cost Structures: The industry grapples with rising costs associated with raw materials, labor, and compliance with safety regulations. These cost pressures can squeeze profit margins, necessitating careful management of pricing strategies and operational efficiencies to maintain competitiveness.

Technology Gaps: While some companies are technologically advanced, others lag in adopting new fabrication technologies. This gap can result in lower productivity and higher operational costs, impacting overall competitiveness in the market and limiting growth potential.

Resource Limitations: The industry is vulnerable to fluctuations in the availability of raw materials, particularly metals, due to global supply chain disruptions. These resource limitations can disrupt production schedules and impact product availability, affecting customer satisfaction.

Regulatory Compliance Issues: Navigating the complex landscape of manufacturing regulations poses challenges for many companies. Compliance costs can be significant, and failure to meet regulatory standards can lead to penalties and reputational damage, impacting overall business operations.

Market Access Barriers: Entering new markets can be challenging due to established competition and regulatory hurdles. Companies may face difficulties in gaining distribution agreements or meeting local regulatory requirements, limiting growth opportunities and market expansion.

Opportunities

Market Growth Potential: There is significant potential for market growth driven by increasing demand for custom metal products across various sectors, including automotive and construction. The trend towards lightweight and durable materials presents opportunities for companies to expand their offerings and capture new market segments.

Emerging Technologies: Advancements in automation and smart manufacturing technologies offer opportunities for enhancing production efficiency and reducing waste. Companies that adopt these technologies can improve their competitive edge and respond more effectively to customer needs.

Economic Trends: Favorable economic conditions, including infrastructure investments and a growing manufacturing sector, support growth in the tube-bending and fabricating market. As industries expand, demand for custom metal solutions is expected to rise, driving revenue growth.

Regulatory Changes: Potential regulatory changes aimed at promoting sustainable manufacturing practices could benefit the industry. Companies that adapt to these changes by implementing eco-friendly processes may gain a competitive edge and enhance their market reputation.

Consumer Behavior Shifts: Shifts in consumer preferences towards high-quality, customized products create opportunities for growth. Companies that align their offerings with these trends can attract a broader customer base and enhance brand loyalty, driving sales.

Threats

Competitive Pressures: Intense competition from both domestic and international players poses a significant threat to market share. Companies must continuously innovate and differentiate their products to maintain a competitive edge in a crowded marketplace.

Economic Uncertainties: Economic fluctuations, including inflation and changes in consumer spending habits, can impact demand for custom metal products. Companies must remain agile to adapt to these uncertainties and mitigate potential impacts on sales.

Regulatory Challenges: The potential for stricter regulations regarding manufacturing processes and environmental compliance can pose challenges for the industry. Companies must invest in compliance measures to avoid penalties and ensure operational continuity.

Technological Disruption: Emerging technologies in alternative manufacturing methods, such as 3D printing, could disrupt traditional tube-bending and fabricating processes. Companies need to monitor these trends closely and innovate to stay relevant in a changing landscape.

Environmental Concerns: Increasing scrutiny on environmental sustainability practices poses challenges for the industry. Companies must adopt sustainable practices to meet consumer expectations and regulatory requirements, which may require significant investment.

SWOT Summary

Strategic Position: The industry currently enjoys a strong market position, bolstered by robust demand for custom metal products across various sectors. However, challenges such as rising costs and competitive pressures necessitate strategic innovation and adaptation to maintain growth. The future trajectory appears promising, with opportunities for expansion into new markets and product lines, provided that companies can navigate the complexities of regulatory compliance and supply chain management.

Key Interactions

Growth Potential: The growth prospects for the industry are robust, driven by increasing demand for custom metal products in sectors such as automotive and aerospace. Key growth drivers include advancements in manufacturing technologies, favorable economic conditions, and a trend towards lightweight materials. Market expansion opportunities exist in both domestic and international markets, particularly as industries seek innovative solutions. However, challenges such as resource limitations and regulatory compliance must be addressed to fully realize this potential. The timeline for growth realization is projected over the next five to ten years, contingent on successful adaptation to market trends and consumer preferences.

Risk Assessment: The overall risk level for the industry is moderate, with key risk factors including economic uncertainties, competitive pressures, and supply chain vulnerabilities. Industry players must be vigilant in monitoring external threats, such as changes in consumer behavior and regulatory landscapes. Effective risk management strategies, including diversification of suppliers and investment in technology, can mitigate potential impacts. Long-term risk management approaches should focus on sustainability and adaptability to changing market conditions. The timeline for risk evolution is ongoing, necessitating proactive measures to safeguard against emerging threats.

Strategic Recommendations

An exploration of how geographic and site-specific factors impact the operations of the Tube-Bending & Fabricating (Manufacturing) industry in the US, focusing on location, topography, climate, vegetation, zoning, infrastructure, and cultural context.

Location: Operations are concentrated in regions with a strong manufacturing base, such as the Midwest and Southeast, where proximity to automotive and aerospace industries enhances collaboration and reduces transportation costs. States like Michigan and Ohio are particularly advantageous due to their established supply chains and skilled labor pools, which are essential for precision manufacturing. The presence of major highways and railroads facilitates efficient distribution of finished products to various markets across the country.

Topography: Facilities typically require flat, accessible land for the installation of heavy machinery and equipment used in tube-bending and fabricating processes. Regions with minimal elevation changes, such as the Great Lakes area, provide ideal conditions for construction and expansion of manufacturing plants. In contrast, hilly or mountainous areas may pose challenges for logistics and transportation of raw materials and finished goods, impacting operational efficiency.

Climate: The industry operates effectively in temperate climates where extreme weather conditions are minimal. Seasonal variations can affect production schedules, particularly in regions prone to heavy snowfall or severe storms, which may disrupt supply chains. Manufacturers often invest in climate control systems to maintain optimal working conditions for machinery and personnel, ensuring consistent quality in production processes throughout the year.

Vegetation: Vegetation management is crucial for maintaining clear operational areas around manufacturing facilities, particularly to prevent pest infestations and ensure safety. Compliance with local environmental regulations regarding land use and vegetation management is necessary, especially in areas with sensitive ecosystems. Facilities often implement landscaping that minimizes maintenance while providing necessary buffers against noise and visual impacts on surrounding communities.

Zoning and Land Use: Manufacturing operations are subject to local zoning laws that dictate land use and operational parameters. Heavy industrial zoning is typically required, along with specific permits for emissions and waste management. Variations in zoning regulations across states can affect site selection and operational flexibility, with some regions offering more favorable conditions for expansion and development of manufacturing facilities.

Infrastructure: Robust infrastructure is essential for the tube-bending and fabricating industry, including access to high-capacity transportation networks for the movement of raw materials and finished products. Facilities require reliable utilities, such as electricity and water, to support heavy machinery and production processes. Communication infrastructure is also vital for coordinating operations and supply chain logistics, ensuring timely delivery of components and products.

Cultural and Historical: The industry benefits from a historical presence in regions with a strong manufacturing heritage, fostering community acceptance and support. Local workforce familiarity with manufacturing processes enhances operational efficiency and innovation. However, community concerns about environmental impacts and industrial activities may necessitate proactive engagement and transparency from manufacturers to maintain positive relationships with local residents.

A detailed overview of the Tube-Bending & Fabricating (Manufacturing) industry’s market dynamics, competitive landscape, and operational conditions, highlighting the unique factors influencing its day-to-day activities.

Market Overview

Market Size: Medium

Description: This industry specializes in the production of custom metal tubes and pipes, employing advanced bending and fabrication techniques to meet specific client specifications. Operations encompass the entire manufacturing process from raw material selection to final product delivery, ensuring high precision and quality standards.

Market Stage: Growth. The industry is currently experiencing growth, driven by increasing demand from sectors such as automotive and aerospace, which require customized solutions and high-quality components for their manufacturing processes.

Geographic Distribution: Regional. Manufacturing facilities are typically located near industrial hubs and major transportation routes to facilitate efficient distribution. Key regions include the Midwest and Southeast, where there is a concentration of automotive and aerospace manufacturers.

Characteristics

Market Structure

Market Concentration: Fragmented. The industry is characterized by a fragmented market structure with numerous small to medium-sized manufacturers, each specializing in specific applications or materials, leading to a diverse competitive landscape.

Segments

Distribution Channels

Success Factors

Demand Analysis

Demand Drivers

Competitive Landscape

Entry Barriers

Business Models

Operating Environment